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New Testament Authorship

By John Gee
book cover
Essential Tools for Understanding the New Testament
Page 199

Authorship in the ancient world implies authors. Someone had to write a work. Here we will look at what is known about the authors of the New Testament in light of the ancient processes of authorship. Many ancient authors did not attach their names to their written works. Letters were an exception to this practice. Most ancient letters give the name of the sender and the recipient, as it was necessary for the messenger to identify the recipient and for the recipient to know who the message was from. Hebrews and 1 John are the only letters that do not follow this pattern. Most of the New Testament is comprised of letters.

Composition

Documents in the ancient world were authored in a number of ways.1 Some, such as letters, were usually dictated to scribes. The scribe might append a note to the document: “I wrote it on his behalf since he did not know letters.”2 “I wrote on his behalf, being requested to because of his cumbersome writing although he wrote his name.”3 The Epistle to the Romans was written this way: “I, Tertius, who wrote this letter, greet you in the Lord.”4 Letters could also be written by individuals: “A copy of this document was written by me. . . . I wrote most of it.”5 Some of Paul’s letters were written by him: “I, Paul, wrote this with my own hand.”6 “You see what a long letter I have written to you with my own hand.”7 To others he appended a note in his own hand: “The greeting of Paul by my own hand.”8 Letters were sent via messengers: “I have written you another letter. . . . My brother, I sent Isidore for this reason.”9 Many of the New Testament writings follow the same pattern.10 Other writings were taken from lectures in shorthand by stenographers, transcribed, and then edited.11 Various writings, such as letters, were gathered into collections.12

Writing books was usually farmed out to professional scribes: “Send to us about the scrolls that you have finished.”13 Collections of texts were stored (for example, “the books of the registers in the library in Patrikos”14) and might be copied there (for example, “likewise, the copies to the library of the places as I ordered”15) or sent out (“Because Serapion will have the scribal office, which he previously had, on behalf of which I previously written, you did well to deliver to him promptly the books of the registers”16). Books were often loaned out: “I have returned the box and the books through Heraklates as you wrote.”17

While most preserved letters are between individuals, letters to groups of individuals have also survived. In cases of letters addressed to groups, the author identified himself by his title and office.18 In contrast, letters to individuals only exceptionally identified the author’s title.19 If anything, letters were liable to identify the individual to whom they are directed rather than the individual who sent them. New Testament letters conform to this pattern.

Most letters that survive from the ancient world are not forgeries. The question is whether any of the New Testament books are forgeries—that is, books that were not actually written by the authors to whom they were attributed. Most of the debate over the authorship of books in the New Testament seems to have started in the late second century.20

We should look at authorship disputes in the history of the first centuries of Christianity. At the end of the first century, the church was suffering from a leadership crisis when the young (νέοι, neoi), ambitious (ζ-λος, zēlos), and foolish (ἄφρονες, aphrones) were stirred up (ἐπηγέρθησαν, epēgerthēsan) to rebellion (στάσις, stasis) against the honored (ἐνδόξους, endoxous) and wise (φρονίσμους, phronismous) leaders of the church21 because they wanted to be in charge (φιλοπρωτεύων, philoprōteuōn).22 They anonymously turned over the church leaders to the Romans for execution23 and refused to be governed by church leaders in a supervisory capacity.24

At the beginning of the second century, the church struggled with those who said that Jesus did not actually suffer.25 In addition, the existence of those who would only believe something in writing26 made certain leaders reluctant to pass on oral traditions.27 Thus, in the second century, there was a widespread fabrication of that oral tradition, with writings claiming to be the secrets that Jesus gave to his apostles after his Resurrection.28 While the practice of citing revelation was used in the second century,29 by the third century, it had largely disappeared.30 Starting in the second century, there were also numerous forgeries created31 to fill the community’s desire for instructions in writing, particularly about the founding generation of the church. During the second century, there were also widespread accusations that various Christian groups altered the text of their scriptures.32 The presence of forgeries set the stage for questioning the authorship of older scriptural texts, which began in the third century. For example, Tertullian claimed that Hebrews was written by Barnabas and considered the Shepherd of Hermas to be a forgery,33 although it was quite popular in the early church.34 In the fourth century, Eusebius questioned the authorship of Hebrews35 and Revelation36 and the authenticity of James, 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, and Jude.37 (The authenticity of these was not questioned in earlier times.) He also questioned the authenticity of 2 Clement and other works attributed to Clement.38

In the fourth century, after so many accusations of forged books, writers like Eusebius used the citation of works by the earlier Christians as an indication of authenticity.39 This approach has much to commend it but puts certain books at a disadvantage. Smaller works are less likely to be cited than larger works, if for no other reason than that there is less to cite. There are, in fact, fewer citations of the smaller books among the early Christian authors. It was also easier to forge a smaller book. It is thus unsurprising that most of the books whose authenticity was disputed by Eusebius and others in the fourth century are shorter in length. The reason that Eusebius doubted the authenticity of James and Jude is because they were not quoted much by early authors.40

The earliest preserved collections of New Testament books are Chester Beatty Papyrus I (𝔓45) and II (𝔓46), both dating to AD 200–250, only about 150 years after the books of the New Testament were written. By the second century, a number of scriptural forgeries, such as the Gospel of the Hebrews,41 the Gospel of Peter,42 and the Gospel of Judas, were already said to be circulating. So those who collected the various New Testament books into collections seem to have had forgeries available to include if they wished to, but they apparently chose not to, showing some discrimination between genuine and forged documents in the selection process. The ancient manuscript tradition preserves attributions of the various books, and these attributions are consistent. This observation is important in establishing the authorship of these texts.

Evidence for the Authorship of Individual New Testament Books

The earliest evidence for authorship of the various New Testament books can be summarized as follows:

Matthew

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: mid-first century (Didache).43

Earliest identification of author: In the second century, Papias said that Matthew wrote a Gospel in Hebrew.44 As a tax collector, Matthew would have had to be literate in Greek, and the translation would have taken place before the mid-first century. At the end of the second century, Irenaeus attributed the Gospel to Matthew.45 The manuscripts identify the author of this work as Matthew as early as the fourth century.46

By the beginning of the second century, it was the most frequently quoted book from the New Testament.47

Mark

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: beginning of the second century (Clement).48

Earliest identification of author: In the second century, Papias said that Mark wrote a Gospel based on Peter’s preaching.49 At the end of the second century, Irenaeus attributed the Gospel to Mark.50 The manuscripts identify the author of this work as Mark as early as the fourth century.51

Luke

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: beginning of the second century (Clement, Polycarp).52

Earliest identification of author: At the end of the second century, Irenaeus attributed the Gospel to Luke.53 The manuscripts identify the author of this work as Luke as early as the fourth century.54

John

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: beginning of the second century (Ignatius).55

Earliest identification of author: At the end of the second century, Irenaeus attributed the Gospel to John.56 The manuscripts identify the author of this work as John as early as the third century.57

Acts

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: beginning of the second century (Polycarp).58

Earliest identification of author: By the end of the second century, Luke is clearly indicated as the author of Acts.59

Romans

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: beginning of the second century (Ignatius).60

Earliest identification of author: At the beginning of the third century, Tertullian attributed this epistle to Paul.61 The manuscripts identify the author of this work as Paul as early as the fourth century.62

1 Corinthians

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: beginning of the second century (Ignatius, Clement, Polycarp).63

Earliest identification of author: At the beginning of the third century, Tertullian attributed this epistle to Paul.64 The manuscripts identify the author of this work as Paul as early as the third century.65

A further note: At the beginning of the second century, the First Epistle to the Corinthians cited as authoritative scripture was the second most popular book in the New Testament.66

2 Corinthians

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: beginning of the second century (Polycarp).67

Earliest identification of author: Tertullian identified the author of this epistle as Paul at the beginning of the third century.68 The manuscripts identify the author of this work as Paul as early as the third century.69

Galatians

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: beginning of the second century (Polycarp).70

Earliest identification of author: At the beginning of the third century, Tertullian identified the author of this epistle as Paul.71 The manuscripts identify the author of this work as Paul as early as the third century.72

Ephesians

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: beginning of the second century (Polycarp).73

Earliest identification of author: Tertullian attributed this epistle to Paul at the beginning of the third century.74 The manuscripts identify the author of this work as Paul as early as the third century.75

Philippians

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: beginning of the second century (Polycarp).76

Earliest identification of author: Tertullian attributed this letter to Paul in the beginning of the third century.77 The manuscripts identify Paul as the author of this work as early as the third century.78

Colossians

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: end of the second century (Irenaeus).79

Earliest identification of author: Tertullian attributed this work to Paul in the beginning of the third century.80 The manuscripts identify Paul as the author of this work as early as the third century.81

1 Thessalonians

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: end of the second century (Irenaeus).82

Earliest identification of author: At the beginning of the third century, Tertullian attributed this epistle to Paul.83 The manuscripts identify Paul as the author of this work as early as the third century.84

2 Thessalonians

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: beginning of the second century (Polycarp).85

Earliest identification of author: In the beginning of the third century, Tertullian attributed this epistle to Paul.86 The manuscripts identify Paul as the author of this work as early as the fourth century.87

1 Timothy

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: beginning of the second century.88

Earliest identification of author: Tertullian, at the beginning of the third century, attributed this epistle to Paul.89 The manuscripts identify the author of this work as Paul as early as the fourth century.90

2 Timothy

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: beginning of the second century (Polycarp).91

Earliest identification of author: At the beginning of the third century, Tertullian identified the author of this epistle as Paul.92 The manuscripts identify the author of this work as Paul as early as the fourth century.93

Titus

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: end of the second century (Irenaeus).94

Earliest identification of author: Tertullian, at the beginning of the third century, attributed this letter to Paul.95 The manuscripts identify the author of this work as Paul as early as the fourth century.96

Philemon

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: beginning of the third century (Tertullian, mentioned but not quoted).97

Earliest identification of author: Tertullian identified this as an epistle of Paul in the early third century.98 The manuscripts identify the author of Philemon as Paul as early as the fourth century.99

Hebrews

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: beginning of the second century (Clement).100

Earliest identification of author: The authorship of Hebrews is probably the most complicated of any New Testament book. In the third-century manuscript named Chester Beatty Papyrus II, Hebrews is placed among the Epistles of Paul between Romans and 1 Corinthians,101 indicating that, by at least the early third century, it was attributed to Paul. In codices containing the Pauline Epistles, the Epistles are generally ordered according to length. Placement of Hebrews in the manuscripts reflects the opinion of the scribes who compiled or wrote the codex about who wrote Hebrews. The third-century codex places Hebrews among the letters of Paul; starting in the fourth century, Hebrews is moved out of the rest of the Pauline corpus. Eusebius claimed that Hebrews was disputed because the church in Rome disputed its Pauline authorship.102 The Latin-speaking branch of Christianity seems to have disputed Paul’s authorship. The third-century Latin church father Tertullian claimed that Barnabas wrote Hebrews, not Paul.103 In the third century, the native Greek-speaking Origen cited this Epistle as being authored by Paul, though he noted that the Greek is more polished than it is in Paul’s other letters. He also cited those who thought that Luke or perhaps Clement authored it but admitted that he could not solve the authorship issue.104 The manuscripts reflect the change in opinion among Christian thought leaders about the authorship.

James

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: mid-second century (Justin Martyr).105

Earliest identification of author: The manuscripts identify the author of this work as James (Jacob) as early as the fourth century.106 Which James—James the brother of John or James the brother of Jesus—is not specified.

1 Peter

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: beginning of the second century (Ignatius, Clement, Polycarp).107 Papias was also citing from 1 Peter in the early second century.108

Earliest identification of author: The manuscripts identify the author of this work as Peter as early as the fourth century.109

Other notes: By the beginning of the second century, the First Epistle of Peter was the third most popular book in the New Testament at the time.110 Because its frequent citation in the early second century is disproportionate to its size, it seems to have been seen as supremely authoritative, which is consistent with the letter being authored by Peter.

2 Peter

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: end of the second century (Irenaeus).111

Earliest identification of author: The manuscripts identify Peter as the author of this work as early as the fourth century.112

1 John

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: beginning of the second century (Polycarp).113 Papias was also citing from 1 John in the early second century.114

Earliest identification of author: The Muratorian Fragment, which is a Latin list of authoritative texts dated as early as the second century, clearly identifies John as the author of the Epistle.115 Other manuscripts identify John as the author of this work as early as the fourth century.116

2 John

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: beginning of the second century (Polycarp).117

Earliest identification of author: The manuscripts identify John as the author of this work as early as the fourth century.118

3 John

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: fourth century (Pseudo-Clementines).119

Earliest identification of author: In the middle of the third century, Eusebius mentioned this epistle and attributed it to John but added that some individuals doubted the attribution.120 The manuscripts identify the author of 3 John as John as early as the fourth century.121

Jude

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: End of the second century (Tertullian).122

Earliest identification of author: The author of this work is identified as Jude in the manuscripts as early as the fourth century.123

Revelation

Earliest quotation as authoritative scripture: Mid-second century (Justin Martyr).124

Earliest identification of author: In the second century, Justin Martyr attributed Revelation to John.125 The manuscripts identify the author of this work as John as early as the fourth century.126

Counterarguments

Noting the struggles within the second-century church over authority, the role of prophecy, and the content of scripture, one might argue that we are simply seeing the choices of the victors, which may not have anything to do with authenticity. Orthodox writers, however, were not the only ones to quote from the New Testament. For example, in the Nag Hammadi library, there are quotations of all the books of the New Testament except Philemon and 3 John,127 the two shortest books. Again, the shorter books are the least likely to be quoted.128 Still, the fact that the canonical works were quoted shows that the New Testament, at least parts of it, were still considered somewhat normative even among unorthodox believers. The Gnostics had a more limited range of works than is represented in the Nag Hammadi library,129 but they still managed to quote from or refer to Matthew,130 Mark,131 Luke,132 John,133 Romans,134 1 Corinthians,135 2 Corinthians,136 Ephesians,137 Philippians,138 Colossians,139 1 Timothy,140 2 Timothy,141 Hebrews,142 1 Peter,143 and Revelation.144 Thus, the New Testament books served not only as source material for orthodox believers but for their opponents as well.

Conclusions

Most of the books in the New Testament were already considered authoritative by the second century. Questions about authorship did not arise until the third century. Before that time, the authorship of New Testament books was not questioned. In general, the Brigham Young University New Testament Commentary series will follow the early Christians on the matter of authorship.

Notes

1. For this discussion, I have cited papyri by their standard papyrological abbreviations. John F. Oates and William H. Willis, eds., “Checklist of Editions of Greek, Latin, Demotic, and Coptic Papyri, Ostraca, and Tables,” Papyri.info, accessed November 1, 2023, https://papyri.info/docs/checklist.

2. Analpap. 30.41 15 (AD 103): ἔγραψα̣ ὑπ(ὲρ) αὐτοῦ μὴ εἰ̣δ(ότος) γ̣ρ̣[ά(μματα)]. Compare BASP 53.95.1 21 (20 BC); BGU 1.189 12–14 (AD 7); BGU 2.636 31–33 (AD 20); P. Hamb. 3.218 23 (AD 29–30); BGU 1.190 15–16 (AD 81–96); BGU 1.183 30–33, 46–47 (AD 85); BGU 2.526 36–41 (AD 86); BGU 1.350 23–24 (AD 98–117); BGU 2.538 35–36 (AD 100); AfP 61.328.3 6–8 (AD 102); BGU 2.600 7–8 (AD 120–140); BGU 1.87 32 (AD 144).

3. BGU 1.69 19–21 (AD 120): ἔ[γ]ραψα ὑπὲρ α[ὐ]τοῦ ἐρωτηθὶς(*) διὰ τὸ βρα[δ]ύτερα(*) αὐτὸν γράφιν(*) αὐτο γράφοντος [τὸ ὄ]νομα(*). Compare BGU 2.543 16–17 (27 BC).

4. Rom. 16:22. All translations are author’s own.

5. BGU 1.300 12–14 (AD 148): τ[ὸ] χειρόγραφον τοῦτο δισσὸν γραφὲν ὑπʼ ἐμοῦ . . . ἔγραψα τὰ πλ[εῖσ]τα.

6. Philem. 1:19.

7. Gal. 6:11.

8. 1 Cor. 16:21; see also Col. 4:18 and 2 Thes. 3:17.

9. BGU 1.249 3–6 (AD 75–76): καὶ διʼ ἑτ[ρας ἐπι]στολῆς ἔγραψά σοι, . . . ἄδελφέ μου, Ἰσίδωρον ἔπεμψα τούτου εἵνε[κα]. Compare BGU 2.595 11–13 (AD 70–80).

10. Eph. 6:21–22; Col. 4:7–9; Titus 3:12–13; 1 Pet. 5:12.

11. Lincoln H. Blumell, with T. W. Mackay and Gregg Schwendner, eds., Didymus the Blind’s Commentary on Psalms 26:10–29:2 and 36:1–3 (P. BYU I) (Turnhout, Belg.: Brepols, 2019), 12–14.

12. Pliny, Epistles 1.1.1.

13. P.Oxy. 2.296 6–7: πέμψον ἡμεῖν περὶ τῶν βιβλίον ᾗ ἐξήρτισας.

14. BGU 3.981 9–10 (AD 79): [τ]ὴν [ἐ]μ(*) Πατρικοῖς βιβλιοθήκ(ην) [τὰ τῆς τάξεως] βιβλία.

15. BGU 3.981 10–11: ὁμ[ο]ίως δὲ καὶ εἰς τὴν ἐπὶ τόπων [βιβλιοθήκην] τὰ ἀντίγραφα ὠς ἐκελεύσθη.

16. BGU 4.1096 2–8 (AD 38): ἐπεὶ Σαραπίων[α] ἔσχον γραμματέα, ὃν πρότερον εἶχον, ὑπὲρ οὗ [κ]αὶ ἄλλοτέ σοι ἔγραψα, εὗ ποιήσεις παραδοὺς αὐτῷτὰ τῆς τάξεως βυβλία ἐξαυτῆς.

17. P.Oxy. 8.1153 3–4 (AD 1–99): [ἐ]κομισάμην διὰ Ἡρακλᾶτος τὰς κίστας, [σὺν] τοῖς βιβλίοις, ὡς γράφεις.

18. P.Lond. 6.1912; P.Gen. 2.1.10; P.Oxy. 42.3020; P.Vind.Worp 12.

19. For an exception, see P.Soter. 28.

20. Edmon L. Gallagher and John D. Meade, The Biblical Canon Lists from Early Christianity: Texts and Analysis (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 41–44.

21. 1 Clement 3:2–3; Ignatius, Epistle to the Magnesians 3:1.

22. 3 John 1:9. Compare Irenaeus, Against Heresies 1.28.1.

23. Pliny, Epistles 10.96.5; Ignatius, Epistle to the Ephesians 1:2; 12:1; 21:2; Ignatius, Epistle to the Trallians 10:1; Ignatius, Epistle to the Romans 1:1; 4:1–5:3; 7:1–2; Ignatius, Epistle to the Smyrnaeans 4:2; 11:1; Eusebius, History of the Church 3.19–20, 3.32.

24. 3 John 1:9; Ignatius, Epistle to the Ephesians 3:1–4:2; 7:1; 9:1; Ignatius, Epistle to the Magnesians 2:1; 6:1; 13:2; Ignatius, Epistle to the Trallians 2:1–2; 3:1; 7:1; 13:2; Ignatius, Epistle to the Philadelphians 7:1–2; Ignatius, Epistle to the Smyrnaeans 8:1–2.

25. Ignatius, Epistle to the Trallians 10:1; Ignatius, Epistle to the Smyrnaeans 1:1–3:3.

26. Ignatius, Epistle to the Philadelphians 8:2.

27. Ignatius, Epistle to the Trallians 5:1–2.

28. Apocryphon of John; Sophia Jesu Christi; 1 Jeu; 2 Jeu; Pistis Sophia. See also John Gee, “The Apocryphal Acts of Jesus,” Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship 2 (2012): 182–86.

29. Shepherd of Hermas 1:2.

30. Tertullian, On Modesty 21–22.

31. Tertullian, On Baptism 17.

32. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho 73; Irenaeus, Against Heresies 1.8.1; 1.27.2, 4; 3.2.1; 5.30.1; Tertullian, Against Marcion 4.2; Tertullian, On Baptism 1.17; Tertullian, Prescription against Heresies 17, 18, 38; John Gee, “The Corruption of Scripture in Early Christianity,” in Early Christians in Disarray: Contemporary LDS Perspectives on the Christian Apostasty, ed. Noel B. Reynolds (Provo, Utah: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 2005), 165–72.

33. Tertullian, On Modesty 20.

34. P.Mich. 1.30; P.Oxy. 1.5; 3.404; 9.1172; 13.1599; 15.1783; 15.1828; 50.3526; 50.3527; 50.3528; 69.4705; 69.4706; 69.4707, all second through fourth century.

35. Eusebius, History of the Church 3.38.

36. Eusebius, History of the Church 3.39; but see 3.25.4.

37. Eusebius, History of the Church 3.25.

38. Eusebius, History of the Church 3.38.

39. Eusebius, History of the Church 3.3.

40. Eusebius, History of the Church 2.23.

41. Eusebius, History of the Church 3.25, 27.

42. P.Oxy. 60.4009 (second century AD). See also Thomas A. Wayment, The Text of the New Testament Apocrypha (100–400 CE) (New York: Bloomsbury, 2013), 49.

43. Matt. 6:9–13, quoted in Didache 8:2; Matt. 7:6, quoted in Didache 9:5.

44. Papias, fragment 6; Eusebius, History of the Church 3.39.16.

45. Irenaeus, Against Heresies 3.1.1; Eusebius, History of the Church 5.8.2.

46. Codex Sinaiticus, running header, Q74-f.1r through Q76-f.2r.

47. Ignatius, Epistle to the Ephesians 14:2; 17:1; 19:2; Ignatius, Epistle to the Magnesians 9:3; Ignatius, Epistle to the Trallians 11:1; Ignatius, Epistle to the Romans 6:1; Ignatius, Epistle to the Philadelphians 3:1; Ignatius, Epistle to the Smyrnaeans 1:1; 6:1; Ignatius, Epistle to Polycarp 1:3; 2:2; 3:2; 1 Clement 13:2; 46:8; Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 2:3; 7:2; Barnabas 4:14; 5:9; 7:3; 12:10; 2 Clement 2:4; 4:2; 6:2; 9:11.

48. Mark 9:42, quoted in 1 Clement 46:8; Andreas Lindemann, “The Apostolic Fathers and the Synoptic Problem,” in New Studies in the Synoptic Problem: Oxford Conference April 2008; Essays in Honour of Christopher M. Tuckett, ed. P. Foster and others (Leuven, Belg.: Uitgeverij Peeters, 2011), 693–94.

49. Papias, fragment 6; Eusebius, History of the Church 3.39.14–15.

50. Irenaeus, Against Heresies 3.1.1; Eusebius, History of the Church 5.8.3.

51. Codex Sinaiticus, running header, Q76.f2v through Q77-f.5r, plus colophon: ευαγγελλι ο ν κατα μαρκ ο ν.

52. Luke 6:31, 37–38, quoted in 1 Clement 13:2. Luke 6:37, 20, quoted in Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 2:3.

53. Irenaeus, Against Heresies 3.1.1; Eusebius, History of the Church 5.8.3.

54. Codex Sinaiticus, running header, Q77-f.5r through Q79-f.7v, plus colophon: ε υαγγ ε λλι ο ν κατα λ ο υκαν.

55. John 3:8, quoted in Ignatius, Epistle to the Philadelphians 7:1.

56. Irenaeus, Against Heresies 3.1.1; 3.22.5; Eusebius, History of the Church 3.23.3; 5.8.4.

57. P.Bodm. II, XIV, XV; See also Codex Sinaiticus, running header, Q80-f.1r through Q81-f.6r, plus colophon: ευαγγ ε λλι ο ν κατα ιωαννην.

58. Acts 2:24, quoted in Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 1:2.

59. Irenaeus, Against Heresies 3.14.1.

60. Rom. 1:3, quoted in Ignatius, Epistle to the Smyrnaeans 1:1; Rom. 9:5, quoted in 1 Clement 32:2; Rom. 1:32, quoted in 1 Clement 35:5; Rom. 12:17, quoted in Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 6:2.

61. Tertullian, Against Marcion 5.13–14.

62. Codex Sinaiticus, Q82-f.1r.

63. 1 Cor. 6:9–10, quoted in Ignatius, Epistle to the Ephesians 16:1; 1 Cor. 1:18, 20, quoted in Ignatius, Epistle to the Ephesians 18:1; 1 Cor. 4:4, quoted in Ignatius, Epistle to the Romans 5:1; 1 Cor. 15:8–9, quoted in Ignatius, Epistle to the Romans 9:2; 1 Cor. 2:9, quoted in 1 Clement 34:8; 1 Cor. 6:9–10, quoted in Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 5:3.

64. Tertullian, Against Marcion 5.5–10.

65. P.Panop.Beatty II f.38v. See also Codex Sinaiticus, Q82-f.7v.

66. Ignatius, Epistle to the Ephesians 16:1; 18:1; Ignatius, Epistle to the Trallians 12:3; Ignatius, Epistle to the Romans 4:3; 5:1; 9:2; Ignatius, Epistle to the Philadelphians 3:3; 1 Clement 34:8; 37:5; 47:3; 49:5; Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 5:3; 9:2; 2 Clement 9:7; Epistle to Diognetus 5:15.

67. 2 Cor. 8:21, quoted in Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 6:1; 2 Cor. 4:12, quoted in Mathetes, Epistle to Diognetus 5.

68. Tertullian, Against Marcion 5.11–12.

69. P.Panop.Beatty II f.61f. See also Codex Sinaiticus, Q83-f.6r.

70. Gal. 4:26, quoted in Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 3:3; Gal. 5:17, quoted in Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 5:3; Gal. 6:7, quoted in Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 5:1.

71. Tertullian, Against Marcion 5.2–4.

72. P.Panop.Beatty II f. 81r. See also Codex Sinaiticus, Q84-f.2v.

73. Eph. 2:8–9, quoted in Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 1:3; Eph. 4:26, quoted in Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 12:1.

74. Tertullian, Against Marcion 5.17–18.

75. P.Panop.Beatty II f.75r. See also Codex Sinaiticus, Q84-f.4v.

76. Philip. 2:16, quoted in Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 9:2.

77. Tertullian, Against Marcion 5.20.

78. P.Panop.Beatty II f.86r. See also Codex Sinaiticus, Q84-f.7r.

79. Col. 1:14, quoted in Irenaeus, Against Heresies 5.2.2.

80. Tertullian, Against Marcion 5.19.

81. P.Panop.Beatty II f.90r. See also Codex Sinaiticus, Q84-f.8v.

82. 1 Thes. 5:23, quoted in Irenaeus, Against Heresies 5.6.1.

83. Tertullian, Against Marcion 5.15.

84. P.Panop.Beatty II f.94r. See also Codex Sinaiticus, Q85-f.2v.

85. 2 Thes. 3:15, quoted in Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 11:3.

86. Tertullian, Against Marcion 5.16.

87. Codex Sinaiticus, Q85-f.4r.

88. 1 Tim. 6:7, 10, quoted in Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 4:1.

89. Tertullian, Against Marcion 5.21.

90. Codex Sinaiticus, Q86-f.2r.

91. 2 Tim. 4:10, quoted in Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 9:2.

92. Tertullian, Against Marcion 5.21.

93. Codex Sinaiticus, Q86-f.3v.

94. Titus 3:10, quoted in Irenaeus, Against Heresies 1.16.3.

95. Tertullian, Against Marcion 5.21.

96. Codex Sinaiticus, Q86-f.5r.

97. Tertullian, Against Marcion 5.21.

98. Tertullian, Against Marcion 5.21.1.

99. Codex Sinaiticus, Q86-f.5v.

100. Heb. 1:3–4, 5, 7, 13, quoted in 1 Clement 36:2, 4, 3, 5, respectively.

101. P.Panop.Beatty II f.21r through f.38v.

102. Eusebius, History of the Church 3.3.

103. Tertullian, On Modesty 20.

104. Eusebius, History of the Church 6.25.11–14.

105. James 5:12, quoted in Justin Martyr, Apology 1.16.5.

106. Codex Sinaiticus, Q89-f.1v, Q89-f.2v.

107. 1 Pet. 2:5, quoted in Ignatius, Epistle to the Ephesians 9:4; 1 Pet. 4:8, quoted in 1 Clement 49:5 and 2 Clement 16:4; 1 Pet. 1:8, quoted in Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 1:3; 1 Pet. 1:13, 21, 22, quoted in 2:1–2; 1 Pet. 2:11, quoted in 5:3; 1 Pet. 4:7, quoted in 7:2; 1 Pet. 2:24, quoted in 8:1; 1 Pet. 2:17, quoted in 10:2; 1 Pet. 4:4, quoted in 2 Clement 16:4.

108. Papias, fragment 6, in Eusebius, History of the Church 3.39.16.

109. Codex Sinaiticus, Q89-f.3r, Q89-f.5r.

110. See Ignatius, Epistle to the Ephesians 5:3; 1 Clement 49:5; Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 1:3; 2:1–2; 5:3; 7:2; 8:1; 10:2; 2 Clement 16:4.

111. Irenaeus, Against Heresies 5.23.2.

112. Codex Sinaiticus, Q89-f.5r, Q89-f.6r.

113. 1 John 4:2–3, quoted in Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 7:1.

114. Papias, fragment 6, in Eusebius, History of the Church 3.25.2.

115. Muratorian Fragment 26–32. See discussion on this fragment and its dating in Gallagher and Meade, Biblical Canon Lists from Early Christianity, 175–79.

116. Codex Sinaiticus, Q89-f.8r.

117. 2 John 1:7, quoted in Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians 7:1.

118. Codex Sinaiticus, Q89-f.8v.

119. 3 John 1:8, quoted in Clementine Homilies 17.19.

120. Eusebius, Church History 6.25.10.

121. Codex Sinaiticus, Q89-f.8v.

122. Jude 1:14–15, quoted in Tertullian, On the Apparel of Women 1.3.

123. Codex Sinaiticus, Q89-f.8v, Q90-f.1r.

124. Rev. 20:2, quoted in Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho 81.4.

125. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho 81.4.

126. Codex Sinaiticus, Q90-f.1v; Q91-f.2r.

127. Craig A. Evans, Robert L. Webb, and Richard A. Wiebe, Nag Hammadi Texts and the Bible: A Synopsis and Index (Leiden, Neth.: E. J. Brill, 1993), 482–541.

128. Noted in Tertullian, Against Marcion 5.21.

129. These are the Apocryphon of John, Zostrianos, Allogenes (the Foreigner), and the book of Zoroaster. For a discussion, see David Brakke, The Gnostics: Myth, Ritual, and Diversity in Early Christianity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2010), 29–51.

130. Apocryphon of John II 2.9–14; 27.21–30.

131. Apocryphon of John II 27.21–30.

132. Apocryphon of John II 27.21–30.

133. Apocryphon of John II 4.21–24; 6.15–18; 27.11–14.

134. Apocryphon of John II 28.26–29; 30.4–7.

135. Apocryphon of John II 7.25–26; 13.8–13; 26.3–7.

136. Apocryphon of John II 28.26–29.

137. Apocryphon of John II 7.25–29; 30.7–11; 31.5–6.

138. Apocryphon of John II 2.4–5; 7.27–29.

139. Apocryphon of John II 7.25–26; 14.21–24.

140. Apocryphon of John II 2.29–32; 26.3–7.

141. Apocryphon of John II 26.3–7.

142. Apocryphon of John II 7.25–26.

143. Apocryphon of John II 7.25–26.

144. Apocryphon of John II 2.16–19; 4.21–24.